This post is the second of a two-part series on the High Court of Australia’s use of subsequent agreement and practice under Article 31(3)(a) and (b) of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT) to interpret treaties that appear in domestic law (which I refer to broadly as ‘incorporated treaties’).

Part 1 of this series considered the High Court’s approach to subsequent agreement and practice in Minister for Home Affairs v Zentai (2012) 246 CLR 123 (Zentai), Maloney v The Queen (2013) 252 CLR 168 (Maloney) and Commonwealth Minister for Justice v Adamas (2013) 253 CLR 43 (Adamas). These cases indicate that the High Court will not consider subsequent agreement or practice to interpret an incorporated treaty where such recourse would conflict with Australia’s division of powers. However, where no such conflict arises, the High Court remains divided on what recourse may be made to VCLT Articles 31(3)(a) and (b) materials. 

Part 2 in this series first considers the High Court’s receptive use of subsequent practice in Macoun v Commissioner of Taxation (2015) 257 CLR 519) and then examines the Court’s latest decision concerning an incorporated treaty – Addy v Commissioner of Taxation [2021] HCA 34. Finally, I explain why, subject to any conflict with Australia’s division of powers, Australian courts should consider VCLT Articles 31(3)(a) and (b) materials in its interpretative exercise. 

The twist 

Two years after Adamas, the High Court was presented with a further opportunity to consider extrinsic materials in Macoun v Commissioner of Taxation (2015) 257 CLR 519 (Macoun). This case centered on the International Organisations (Privileges and Immunities) Act 1963 (Cth) (IOPI Act) which gives effect to Australia’s obligations under the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the Specialised Agencies (Agencies Convention) through the Specialized Agencies (Privileges and Immunities) Regulations 1986 (SAPI Regulations). Importantly, the Agencies Convention was not incorporated into statute. Instead, it was ‘common ground’ that the Court was examining the Agencies Convention ‘to construe the IOPI Act in a manner which accords with Australia’s international obligations if such a construction is open’ (at [67]).  

The Court stated that VCLT Articles 31 and 32, including Article 31(3), were the relevant rules to construe the Agencies Convention. Despite Macoun’s submission to the contrary, the Court considered practice that post-dated the introduction of the IOPI Act (at [80]), specifically, decisions of foreign domestic courts and the United Nations Administrative Tribunal (UNAT).  

The Court appeared to treat foreign domestic court decisions as subsequent practice under VCLT Article 31(3)(b). This is not strictly correct. Foreign court decisions do not evidence agreement of all the parties to a treaty. Consistent with the International Law Commission’s 2018 work on subsequent agreement and practice, I suggest that decisions of foreign domestic courts are better understood as a subsidiary means of interpretation under VCLT Article 32.  

The Court’s examination of the UNAT decision was more consistent with the VCLT. Pronouncements of international tribunals, such as the UNAT, are not themselves subsequent practice but may help identify subsequent practice where they reflect, give rise to, or refer to the practice of the parties. The Court’s examination of the UNAT decision correctly focuses on the states’ position recorded in the decision, for example, points agreed or conceded by all parties. 

What can we make of the Court’s discussion of subsequent practice in Macoun? Wall suggests that Macoun is a marked improvement in the Court’s approach to treaty interpretation, possibly explained by the Convention’s subject matter, the extrinsic materials in dispute, composition of the bench and quality of submissions. However, a salient distinction in Macoun is that the Agencies Convention was not incorporated into statute. I re-emphasise that the Court only examined the Agencies Convention to construe the IOPI Act. The Court was not interpreting the Agencies Convention on the basis that it had been incorporated into statute (indeed, it had not been incorporated into statute). This may explain why the Court was so receptive to subsequent practice that post-dated the SAPI Regulations.  

If this distinction is correct, it raises a puzzling question: why can you rely on subsequent practice to understand your international legal obligations, but not to interpret statutes that incorporate those obligations? I accept there may be circumstances where it is difficult to accommodate VCLT Article 31(3) materials into the interpretative exercise, for example, where there is a conflict with Australia’s division of powers. However, I see no other reason to exclude VCLT Article 31(3) materials from the interpretative process.  

The latest development

On 3 November 2021, the High Court handed down its decision in Addy v Commissioner of Taxation [2021] HCA 34 (Addy). Whilst Addy does not resolve the issues addressed above, it is worth a brief discussion as the latest example of treaty interpretation from the High Court.  

In 2015, Addy (a national of the United Kingdom) entered Australia on a working holiday visa. Whilst in Australia, Addy accrued taxable income through casual work and was issued with a notice of assessment by the Commissioner of Taxation (Commissioner). Addy objected to that notice on the basis that it contravened Article 25(1) of the Australia-UK Double Tax Agreement (Australia-UK DTA). Article 25(1) provides that nationals of a Contracting State shall not be subject to ‘other or more burdensome’ taxation in the other Contracting State than is imposed on its own nationals ‘in the same circumstances’. The issue for the Court was whether the tax rates imposed on Addy were more burdensome than what would have been imposed on Australian nationals in the same circumstances.  

It is important to note that the Australia-UK DTA is not incorporated into statute in the same way as occurred in Zentai, Maloney and Adamas. Specifically, the text of the Australia-UK DTA does not form part of domestic statute. Rather, it is listed in the International Tax Agreements Act 1953 (Cth) as an agreement that has the force of law in Australia. Despite this, the Court acknowledged that the same principles applied to interpret the Australia-UK DTA, that is, VLCT Articles 31 and 32 (at [23]).  

Addy is interesting for two reasons. First, the Commissioner relied heavily on a New Zealand Court of Appeal (NZCA) decision, Commissioner of Inland Revenue v United Dominions Trust Ltd [1973] 2 NZLR 555, in which the NZCA interpreted a largely equivalent non-discrimination clause in the New Zealand-UK DTA. The High Court did not discuss the interpretative value of this decision, but simply noted that the Commissioner’s reliance on it was ‘misplaced’ and it was of ‘no assistance in the present case’ (at [27]). 

Secondly, the Court in Addy raised, but did not answer, the issue of whether commentaries that post-dated the Australia-UK DTA could be relied upon to interpret the agreement. Specifically, the Court queried whether a later version of Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Model Tax Convention commentary could be used, presumably under VCLT Article 32. On this point, I note Gardiner’s view that a later commentary may be recognised as an aid to interpretation where it ‘shows clearly the collective intention of those who drew up the treaty’ (at 403).

Concluding remarks

Subject to any conflict with Australia’s division of powers, I propose that Australian courts should consider VCLT Articles 31(3)(a) and (b) materials in its interpretative exercise. This is for two reasons. First, recourse to subsequent agreement and practice ensures that courts interpret incorporated treaties consistently with the community of nations and Australia’s international obligations. If courts disregard VCLT Articles 31(3)(a) and (b) materials, they may interpret incorporated treaties inconsistently with Australia’s international obligations. As court decisions are ‘always attributable to the State’ (at p.138), such interpretations may trigger Australia’s international legal responsibility. Secondly, recourse to subsequent agreement and practice ensures incorporated treaties are interpreted in a certain and uniform manner. Certainty and uniformity are particularly important for incorporated treaties (such as double taxation agreements) whose object would be ‘frustrated if “they were to be interpreted in a manner which would permit or foster conflicting outcomes”‘ (at [148]). 

In 1997, the late Professor Ivan Shearer stated that the interpretation of incorporated treaties was an ‘important question’ that would ‘likely grow in importance’. He was right. Yet despite the passage of more than two decades, we are no closer to an answer on whether, and to what extent, subsequent agreement and practice may be used to interpret incorporated treaties. The only point that appears settled is that subsequent agreement and practice cannot be used to interpret an incorporated treaty where reliance on those materials would conflict with Australia’s division of powers.

All views are my own and do not necessarily reflect the views of past or present employers. I am grateful for the comments of Co-Editor-in-Chief, Josephine Dooley and Assistant Editor, Sarah Barrie. 

Samuel Saunders is a Legal Officer at the Attorney-General’s Department Office of International Law. The views expressed in this post do not necessarily represent the views of his past or present employers.

This post is the first of a two-part series discussing the High Court of Australia’s approach to the use of subsequent agreement and practice as a means of treaty interpretation pursuant to the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969.

Due to the internationalisation of Australian domestic law, Australian courts are increasingly tasked with interpreting treaties that appear in domestic law (which I refer broadly to as ‘incorporated treaties’). The position in Australia appears to be that incorporated treaties are interpreted according to the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969 (VCLT). Despite this clear position, there is a lack of clarity from the High Court on the use of subsequent agreement and practice under Articles 31(3)(a) and (b) of the VCLT to interpret incorporated treaties. 

This series suggests the High Court’s hesitance to refer to Articles 31(3)(a) and (b) materials may stem from concerns regarding Australia’s separation of powers.  Whilst these concerns are legitimate, I suggest that the Court should – absent any conflict with Australia’s separation of powers – consider subsequent agreement and practice to interpret incorporated treaties.

The beginning

The first High Court case to consider VCLT Articles 31(3)(a) and (b) materials to interpret an incorporated treaty was Minister for Home Affairs v Zentai (2012) 246 CLR 123 (Zentai). Zentai was alleged to have committed a war crime in Hungary in 1944. Following Hungary’s request for Zentai’s extradition, the Minister agreed that he be surrendered to Hungary. The subsequent dispute centered on the Treaty on Extradition between Australia and the Republic of Hungary (Extradition Treaty). The Extradition Treaty is annexed to the Extradition (Republic of Hungary) Regulations (Cth) which provides that the Extradition Act 1988 (Cth) (Extradition Act) operates subject to the Extradition Treaty. I note that bilateral extradition treaties are not strictly ‘incorporated’ into Australian statute because the Extradition Act applies ‘subject to’ a bilateral extradition treaty.  

Pursuant to Article 2(5)(a) of the Extradition Treaty, extradition may only be granted where ‘the offence in relation to which extradition is sought … was an offence in the Requesting State at the time of the acts or omissions constituting the offence’. This was relevant because Hungary only criminalised the offence of ‘war crimes’ in 1945, one year after Zentai’s alleged conduct.  

The Minister argued that Hungary’s request for Zentai’s extradition, and Australia’s accession to that request, amounted to subsequent practice under Article 31(3)(b) which confirmed that Article 2(5)(a) would not preclude Zentai’s extradition. In the alternative, the Minister argued that the decision to extradite Zentai constituted an Article 31(3)(a) subsequent agreement between Australia and Hungary.  

The Court rejected the Minister’s submissions on two bases. First, the majority (Gummow, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ) held that Article 2(5)(a) of the incorporated treaty was ‘not susceptible of altered meaning reflecting some understanding reached by the Ministry of Justice of Hungary and the Executive branch of the Australian Government’ (at [65]). This was because the Executive required the ‘authority of statute to surrender a person for extradition’ (at [65]). Therefore, the Executive’s power to extradite Zentai could not derive from a subsequent agreement or practice between Australia and Hungary. Secondly, French CJ held that, for the purposes of domestic law, a treaty could only be interpreted by reference to extrinsic materials that existed at the time the treaty was incorporated into statute (at [36]). Therefore, the Minister could not rely on any agreement or practice that post-dated the incorporation of the extradition treaty into statute. 

The great divide 

Shortly after the Court decided Zentai, the High Court was presented with another opportunity to consider extrinsic materials in Maloney v The Queen (2013) 252 CLR 168 (Maloney). In this case, the High Court was divided on whether certain international materials could be used to interpret section 8(1) of the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth) (RDA) which incorporated the term ‘special measures’ from the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD). It is worth noting that the materials in dispute were pronouncements of treaty bodies and not statements of the treaty parties themselves (specifically, the Court considered General Recommendations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination and an Advice of the Expert Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, among others). I note that pronouncements of treaty bodies are not Article 31(3)(a) or (b) materials of themselves, but ‘may give rise to, or refer to, a subsequent agreement or subsequent practice’. 

Their Honours adopted varied positions on the use of these materials.  Hayne and Crennan JJ adopted the most restrictive position. Hayne J held that recourse may only be had to extrinsic materials that ‘existed at the time the RDA was enacted’, although later materials ‘may usefully direct attention to possible’ construction arguments (at [61]). Crennan J similarly held that later materials could not be elevated over the language of the treaty, but may guide State parties as to their reporting obligations (at [134]). 

Conversely, French CJ and Kiefel J adopted a qualified position. French CJ held that whilst Article 31(3) materials could ‘illuminate’ an interpretation (at [23]), they could not ‘authorise a court to alter the meaning of a domestic law implementing a provision of a treaty’ (at [16]). Kiefel J similarly opined that courts may have regard to views expressed in extraneous materials ‘provided that they are well founded and can be accommodated in the process of construing the domestic statute, which is the task at hand’ (at [175]). It is unclear what Kiefel J meant by ‘accommodated’. Perry J suggested in Tech Mahindra Limited v Commissioner of Taxation [2015] FCA 1082  that Kiefel J was contemplating a situation where extrinsic materials may disrupt Australia’s division of powers, as occurred in Zentai (at [61]). 

Bell and Gageler JJ were the most receptive to extrinsic materials. Bell J held, without qualification, that the meaning of ‘special measures’ may be ascertained by reference to VCLT Article 31(3) (at [235]). However, her Honour considered that the specific materials were not materials of that kind (at [235]), a finding consistent with the International Law Commission’s (ILC) codification of subsequent agreements and practice (ILC Draft conclusions on subsequent agreements and subsequent practice in relation to the interpretation of treaties, Conclusion 13). Without referring to the VCLT, Gageler J stated that the RDA was to be ‘constructed to give effect to those obligations’ under CERD to the ‘maximum extent that its terms permit’ (at [326]). His Honour suggested that what is required by those obligations will turn on the ‘content attributed to them by the community of nations’ (at [326]).  

The common thread amongst these judgments is an acceptance that, at the very least, subsequent agreement and practice may ‘illuminate’ an interpretation of an incorporated treaty. French CJ was the only judge to provide a principled reason for this restricted use of VCLT Article 31(3) materials, averring that ‘[o]bligations imposed by international instruments on States do not necessarily take account of the division of functions between their branches of government’ (at [15]). The Chief Justice’s reasoning was clearly influenced by Zentai, which raised identical concerns about VCLT Article 31(3) materials and Australia’s division of powers.

The reprise

A few months after Maloney, the High Court decided Commonwealth Minister for Justice v Adamas (2013) 253 CLR 43 (Adamas). Adamas was tried and sentenced to life imprisonment for corruption in an Indonesian court in absentia. Following Indonesia’s extradition request, the Minister agreed to surrender Adamas. A dispute ensued regarding the interpretation of Article 9(2)(b) of the Extradition Treaty between Australia and the Republic of Indonesia (incorporated through the Extradition (Republic of Indonesia) Regulation 1994 (Cth)) which provides that extradition may be refused where it would be ‘unjust, oppressive or incompatible with humanitarian considerations’.  

The Court issued a unanimous judgment holding that Article 9(2)(b) ‘could not be affected by any subsequent agreement or practice of Australia and the Republic of Indonesia’ (at [31]). Their Honours cited the majority judgment in Zentai in reaching this conclusion and, perhaps cognisant of the inconsistency with the VCLT, made a ‘cf’ (i.e., compare) reference to Articles 31(3)(a) and (b). 

It is interesting that the Court referred to subsequent agreement and practice in their judgment. Neither party had relied on VCLT Article 31(3) materials and the Minister appeared to accept (in a footnote to their written submissions) that a court may not rely on them. On one view, the Court may have been attempting to clarify its position on VCLT Article 31(3) materials following the division in Maloney. However, it is equally possible that the Court was re-affirming the specific rule in Zentai that an incorporated treaty cannot be altered by subsequent agreement or practice where this would conflict with Australia’s division of powers. 

Part two in this series will consider the High Court’s approach to subsequent agreement and practice in Macoun v Commissioner of Taxation (2015) 257 CLR 519 and Addy v Commissioner of Taxation [2021] HCA 34, and will propose how the High Court might approach subsequent agreement and practice in the future.

Samuel Saunders is a Legal Officer at the Attorney-General’s Department Office of International Law. The views expressed in this post do not necessarily represent the views of his past or present employers.

The widespread use of entry restrictions and border closures during the COVID-19 pandemic highlights an increasing trend in which States rely upon securitised borders as a default response to public health and humanitarian emergencies. This post examines the practical significance of the use of border closure exemptions for asylum seekers arriving by air in countries such as Canada, Germany, and the United States, in contrast to the lack of such exemptions in countries such as Australia, Costa Rica, and Uganda. Noting that Australia’s failure to provide humanitarian exemptions to pandemic border closures raises questions regarding its commitment to the international refugee law and human rights regimes, whether there is any appreciable difference between the Australian approach and the approach adopted by  States like Germany, Canada, and the United States bears further examination. 

Throughout the course of the COVID-19 pandemic, scholars have pointed to the ways in which State restrictions on movement across international borders have made it more difficult for asylum seekers to access refugee status determination (RSD) procedures. States such as Australia have cited health grounds to adopt measures ranging from entry restriction to outright border closure, regardless of whether the affected individuals hold a valid visa. The impact on international travel has been extensive and well-documented, ensnaring many from the Global North in restrictive and increasingly securitised travel regimes typically reserved for those in the Global South. 

When Australia closed its international border to all but Australian citizens and Permanent Residents (with limited exceptions) on 20 March 2020, it became one of the few liberal democratic countries to instate the closure without providing an exemption for people seeking asylum. In a recent Policy Brief, the Kaldor Centre for International Refugee Law examined how Australia’s full border closure resembled the closures of countries such as Costa Rica and Uganda, while diverging from others. Though countries including Canada, Germany, and the United States adopted border restrictions and closures, they also explicitly exempted asylum seekers from those closures in recognition that despite the pandemic, people facing persecution, conflict, disasters and violence were forced to seek safety in other countries. 

However, does the existence in Canada, Germany and the United States of exemptions to pandemic-related border closures for asylum seekers who arrive in a country by air have any practical effect for those subject to border closures who also lack a visa allowing for travel? Although pre-existing restrictive visa regimes in those States may render border closure exemptions for asylum seekers without visas meaningless, the Australian approach provides an extreme example of restrictions that have also prevented scores of humanitarian visa holders from travelling to the country. The Australian example appears to reflect an approach to refugees and asylum seekers that expands upon an already troubling trend among States in the Global North to prevent people from travelling by air who might seek asylum, despite their protection obligations under international law.  

In international law, every person ‘has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution’ (Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article 14). Various regional instruments affirm this fundamental right, including the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, the American Convention on Human Rights, and the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. Under international refugee and human rights law, States cannot return a person to any country where they are likely to face persecution or other serious harm. Although States have at times insisted that they have the ability to restrict access to asylum for individuals travelling by air, those claims have no legal basis in international law, which requires States to protect individuals from refoulement who are within their ‘territory and subject to [their] jurisdiction.’ 

Even prior to the pandemic, scholars documented Australia’s increasing use of law enforcement and security-focused practices and rhetoric to immobilise and confine asylum seekers to the Global South. Australia’s universal visa system presented the first barrier to entry for asylum seekers, as the country does not issue visas for the purpose of seeking asylum. Therefore, a person would have to qualify for a different type of visa in order to travel to Australia by air. Once the person landed at an Australian airport and requested asylum, they would typically be subject to an entry screening process to determine whether they would be allowed to formally lodge an asylum application. Yet, Australia’s pandemic border closure upended that system and broadly prevented non-citizens, from travelling to the country without exempting those who might seek asylum, including humanitarian entrants with valid Australian visas.  

Although countries like Germany, Canada, and the United States provided exceptions to broad aerial border closures for the purpose of seeking asylum, it is unlikely that those exemptions have enabled potential asylum seekers to travel by air without the existence of some other purpose for travel. Like Australia, neither Germany, Canada, nor the United States issue visas for the purpose of seeking asylum. In fact, each of those States has in place airport arrival procedures that use ‘entry fictions’ to prevent the ‘legal’ entry of a person physically present in the country and similar legal measures to provide a basis for cancelling the visa of a person who raises an asylum claim. This is often accomplished by examining a person’s purpose for travel and evaluating whether that purpose matches the visa held. Therefore, any potential asylum seeker would need to qualify for a visa on grounds other than the asylum claim, such as for study or work, in order to board a flight. Furthermore, it appears that any potential asylum seeker would also then need to qualify for an exemption to COVID-19 border closures on the same grounds as the underlying visa, such as an exempted worker or student, in order to travel to those countries. There does not appear to be any occasion for an asylum seeker who does not already possess (or cannot obtain) a valid visa to travel to Germany, Canada, or the United States and enjoy the formal pandemic border closure exemptions for asylum seekers. 

Though the existence of exemptions to these border closures may prevent airport border officials from removing an asylum seeker on health grounds once they have arrived in those countries – something that Australian policy does not do – the practical effect of the securitisation of air travel and development of visa regimes and other obstacles raises questions about whether humanitarian exemptions to COVID-19 related border closures go far enough. If anything, pandemic-related border restrictions have shone further light on the existence of increasingly restrictive border regimes which practically provide almost no relief to humanitarian entrants in the face of persecution, conflict, disasters, and violence that has continued to compel movement across international borders. While Australia’s failure to provide humanitarian exemptions to pandemic border closures provides further evidence of its outlier status in the international refugee law and human rights regimes, the question of whether there is any appreciable difference with States like Germany, Canada, and the United States bears further examination. 

Regina Jefferies is an Assistant Professor at Western Washington University, a Scientia PhD Scholar at the University of New South Wales and an affiliate of the Andrew & Renata Kaldor Centre for International Refugee Law. 

This post examines Australia’s policies on legal assistance for asylum seekers and refugees in the wake of tennis World No 1 Novak Djokovic’s much-publicised visa saga. 

With Rafael Nadal’s victory over Daniil Medvedev, the 2022 Australian Open drew to an end – a competition that may be remembered more for its off-court dramas than its on-court triumphs. Most sensationally, the Open saw the arrival, visa cancellation, detention, and ultimately deportation of World No 1 tennis player Novak Djokovic. The litigation accompanying the affair provoked enormous public interest. While Djokovic was successful in having the initial visa cancellation quashed on the basis that he was denied procedural fairness, the Minister for Immigration responded by exercising his so-called ‘God Power’ under section 133C(3) of the Migration Act to cancel the re-instated visa – a decision that ultimately survived a judicial review challenge in the Full Federal Court. 

The Djokovic affair piqued interest in Australia’s general treatment of asylum seekers and refugees – some of whom were detained, along with Djokovic, at the Park Hotel in Melbourne. Commentators sought to unpick Australia’s detention policy – how it is that a recognised refugee like Mehdi, who arrived in Australia in 2013 as an unaccompanied child, could be held in a hotel room nine years later. Ben Doherty, who has consistently reported on the parlous conditions of those caught by Australia’s refugee policies, noted the ‘absurdist turn’ that a world No 1 tennis player could refocus attention on a situation that had endured for years. Even the Prime Minister seemed, at best, unaware that 25 of the 32 detainees at the Park Hotel had been formally recognised as refugees.  

Although Djokovic’s challenge was ultimately unsuccessful, the affair highlights the importance of access to lawyers and the courts. When challenging each visa cancellation, Djokovic had the resources to assemble an effective legal team. In contrast, asylum seekers and refugees often face significant hurdles in accessing lawyers and the courts to safeguard their rights. Australia’s policies have the effect of exacerbating, rather than easing, these barriers to access. 

For those who travel by boat, Australia’s policy of ‘turnbacks’ and ‘takebacks’ under Operation Sovereign Borders clearly hinders access to lawyers. Dastyari and Ghezelbash note that asylum seekers turned back to Indonesia are not given the opportunity to make a protection claim at all, while those returned to Sri Lanka and Vietnam first undergo ‘enhanced screening’ at sea to determine if they should be granted access to the full refugee status determination process (only two people had apparently been ‘screened-in’ through this process as of 2020 – see p 22). The Human Rights Committee has raised concerns that these assessments – made ‘without access to counsel or an effective possibility to legally challenge the decision’ – do not guarantee full protection against non-refoulement ([33]). Similar concerns were raised by the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment ([30]).  

Accessing legal advice is also difficult for those who arrive by plane and seek asylum at the airport before being ‘immigration cleared’. Jefferies, Ghezelbash and Hirsch shine a much-needed light on the complex airport entry-screening procedure, which they consider to be ‘designed in a way to limit avenues available for reviewing adverse determinations’ (p 183). In a Policy Brief, the authors recommend that ‘screened-out’ applicants be entitled to a review by an independent decision-maker before removal from Australia, and that all applicants be given access to ‘legal advice, competent interpreters and officials from UNHCR during both the preliminary decision and review stages’ (p 16). Jefferies also suggests the creation of an ‘on-call’ legal assistance program at airports to advise asylum seekers (p 21). 

Asylum seekers who arrived in Australia by boat between 13 August 2012 and 1 January 2014 – the so-called ‘Legacy Caseload’ – also faced significant issues securing legal assistance.  In March 2014, the government dramatically reduced access to the Immigration Advice and Application Assistance Scheme (IAAAS), which provides free immigration advice and application assistance to eligible asylum seekers. This left asylum seekers who arrived without a valid visa largely ineligible for government assistance (a small proportion could access the Primary Application Information Service (PAIS) scheme). The Australian Human Rights Commission (AHRC) reports that free legal services were unable fully to fill the gap left by the withdrawal of IAAAS assistance (p 33). The Justice Project found that the decision to cut access to the IAAAS left many asylum seekers to navigate ‘complex legal systems alone and without access to essential legal assistance’, with consequences including the risk of refoulement and ‘increased burdens on decision-making officials and the courts’ (pp 22–23). Both the AHRC (p 15) and The Justice Project (p 40) recommend that the government reinstate access to IAAAS to all asylum seekers who require it. The Special Rapporteur on the human rights of migrants also referred to Australia’s need for sufficient publicly funded legal assistance ([91] and [126]).  

Australia’s policies of offshore processing and detention only increase the difficulties in accessing legal assistance and the courts. For example, the Refugee Advice & Casework Service (RACS) has reported that assisting clients in detention is often frustrated by their inconsistent access to the internet and phone, and by the Australian Border Force’s practice of moving people between detention centres without notice (p 11).  

As a State party to the 1951 Refugee Convention, Australia has an obligation not to return a refugee to harm (article 33), or to penalise a refugee for entering the country illegally (article 31). These obligations entail the need for a fair status determination process to determine whether a person seeking asylum is in fact a refugee. In addition, Australia is obliged to grant refugees – and, arguably, asylum seekers (see eg Hathaway, p 915) – free access to courts under article 16 of the 1951 Refugee Convention. Article 16 should be interpreted in a way that ensures that effective access to courts is available. This requires the State to take positive measures on a case-by-case basis, such as providing legal aid and interpretation services where necessary. Article 16 is an important complement to Australia’s obligations under articles 13 and 14 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (the latter of which has been interpreted as not applying to the review of a failed asylum application – see e.g. Chadzjian v Netherlands, [8.4]). In a recent speech, Dr Jacoba Brasch QC, the 2021 President of the Law Council of Australia, reflected that ‘[t]he very factors that drive people to seek asylum are likely to render refugees and asylum seekers incapable of affording private legal assistance’ (p 11). Facilitating access to lawyers is critical to ensuring that asylum seekers can effectively make a protection application and to safeguarding their rights. A failure to do so risks breaching Australia’s international obligations towards asylum seekers. 

Emma Dunlop is a PhD candidate at UNSW Sydney. 

Jobs

Research Officer, Law Council of Australia 

The International Division of the Law Council is seeking a research officer to monitor developments in international law, jurisprudence and legal practice. Applications close 11 February 2022. More information available here.

Associate Legal Officer, International Court of Justice 

The International Court of Justice wishes to appoint a number of Law Clerks, each of whom will provide research and other legal assistance to one of the judges of the Court. Applications close 22 March 2022. More information available here.  

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Internships

Global Policy Department Internship, International Chamber of Commerce 

The International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) is seeking a full-time intern to support the work of the Global Policy Department, as of 11 April 2022 for a period of 6 months. Applications close 18 February 2022. More information available here.  

International Bar Association Internships, London 

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Programme, United Nations Assistance to the Khmer Rouge Trials 

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International Criminal Court, Prosecution Division 

Applications close 31 March 2022. More information available here.  

Internship Programme, International Trade Centre 

Application deadlines vary, depending on the unit. More information available here.   

Internship Programme, UNCITRAL Asia-Pacific 

Applications close 13 February 2022. More information available here. 

Various UN departments and agencies, various locations  

A variety of UN internship positions are currently open. Please see the following links for legal internship positions with application deadlines in February 2022:  

https://careers.un.org/lbw/jobdetail.aspx?id=173752&Lang=en-US

https://careers.un.org/lbw/jobdetail.aspx?id=170734&Lang=en-US

https://careers.un.org/lbw/jobdetail.aspx?id=170590&Lang=en-US

https://careers.un.org/lbw/jobdetail.aspx?id=149131&Lang=en-US

Opportunities

Junior Professional Officers Program – United Nations Placement Opportunity, Australian Government 

The Junior Professionals Officers Program offers young APS employees the opportunity to gain hands-on experience in multilateral technical cooperation and international development. The deadline for applications is 13 February 2022. More information available here. 

Call for Papers, 29^th Annual Conference of the Australian and New Zealand Society of International Law 

Call for papers on international law and global inter-connectedness. The deadline for papers is 21 February 2022. More information available here.  

Judicial Fellowship Programme, International Court of Justice  

The International Court of Justice (ICJ) invites applications from eligible universities around the world for the 2022-2023 Judicial Fellowship Programme (formerly known as the University Traineeship Programme). Universities must nominate candidates for the program, the Court does not accept applications from individuals. The deadline for applications is 13 February 2022. More information available here.  

60^th Graduate Study Programme, United Nations 

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Events

Launch of the International Review of the Red Cross: Counterterrorism, Sanctions and War 

On 24 February 2022, the Australian Red Cross and the International Committee of the Red Cross are launching the latest edition of the International Review of the Red Cross, ‘Counterterrorism, Sanctions and War’. Guest speakers include Dr Helen Durham AO, Professor Ben Saul and Adrian Prouse. See here for more information and to register. 

Australian and New Zealand Perspectives on the Negotiations at UNCLOS III 

On 24 February 2022, the ANU Centre for International and Public Law will host an event the negotiations at the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea and of subsequent fisheries, boundary and marine environmental protection treaties, to the challenges of domestic implementation and the settlement of law of the sea disputes through international courts and tribunals. Guest speakers are Mr Henry Burmester AO QC, Mr Bill Mansfield, Dr Penny Ridings MNZM and Mr Richard Rowe PSM. See here for more information and to register. 

Sydney Centre for International Law Year in Review Conference 

On 25 February 2022, the Sydney Centre for International Law’s annual ‘year in review’ conference brings together expert speakers from around the world to give participants insight into the latest developments in international law over the preceding year, especially those most salient for Australia. The conference will include a keynote address by Professor Megan Davis, Pro Vice-Chancellor Indigenous at UNSW, on the topic ‘Public International Law and the Uluru Statement from the Heart’ and the launch of Non-Binding Norms in International Humanitarian Law with author, Associate Professor Emily Crawford, Sydney Law School. See here for more information and to register. 

Jobs

Associate Counsel, Singapore International Arbitration Centre, Singapore

See here for more information: https://siac.org.sg/open-position/job-opportunities/464-associate-counsel

Legal Officer, P3, Office of Legal Affairs, New York

This position is located in the Codification Division of the Office of Legal Affairs. Applications close on 26 January 2022. See here for more information: https://careers.un.org/lbw/jobdetail.aspx?id=169073&Lang=en-US

Legal Officer, P4, Office of Legal Affairs, New York

This position is located in the Office of the Legal Counsel of the Office of Legal Affairs. Applications close on 29 January 2022. See here for more information: https://careers.un.org/lbw/jobdetail.aspx?id=170954&Lang=en-US

Legal Officer, P4, Office of Legal Affairs, Kingston 

The post is located within the Office of Legal Affairs at the Headquarters of the International Seabed Authority located in Kingston, Jamaica. Applications close on 30 January 2022. See here for more information: https://careers.un.org/lbw/jobdetail.aspx?id=172079&Lang=en-US

Legal Officer, P4, Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate, New York 

This position is located in the Specialized Technical Expertise and Research Branch of the Assessment & Technical Assistance Office, Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate (CTED). The incumbent reports to the Countering the Financing of Terrorism (CFT) Coordinator. Applications close on 11 February 2022. See here for more information: https://careers.un.org/lbw/jobdetail.aspx?id=171643&Lang=en-US

Associate Professor in Human Rights, Norwegian Centre for Human Rights, University of Oslo Faculty of Law, Oslo

Applications close on 19 January 2022. See here for more information: https://www.jobbnorge.no//en/available-jobs/job/216116/associate-professor-in-human-rights-social-sciences

Research Fellow in Business, ESG and Modern Slavery, British Institute of International and Comparative Law, London

The Bingham Centre and The Modern Slavery Policy Evidence Centre (The PEC) are looking for a dynamic Research Fellow, at post-doctoral level or equivalent, with expertise in how businesses deal with Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) issues, including modern slavery, to help develop and deliver a programme of research of direct relevance and interest to business and capable of influencing both policy and business practice. Applications close on 23 January 2022 at 23.59 GMT.  See here for more information: https://www.biicl.org/documents/11116_modern_slavery_pec_rf_in_business_esg_and_modern_slavery_-_dec_2021.pdf

Senior Legal Officer, African Union Commission, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

For lawyers from African Union member states. Applications close on 17 January 2022.  See here for more information: https://jobs.au.int/The%20African%20Union%20Commiss/job/Addis-Ababa-Senior-Legal-Officer/737716502/

Law and Policy Adviser, ClientEarth, Brussels/London

Applications close on 20 January 2022.  See here for more information: https://jobs.clientearth.org/jobs/vacancy/law-and-policy-advisor–0528/546/description/?fbclid=IwAR2GDCQs1wVgYoexka8i8oYDLXDcwxPmf3kbj68haeBp38z9L5Up2NLKVek

Human Rights Specialist for Latin America and the Caribbean, The Danish Institute for Human Rights, Bogotá

The position is with the regional office of the Danish Institute for Human Rights established in Colombia. Applications close 21 January 2022. See here for more information: https://candidate.hr-manager.net/ApplicationInit.aspx?https://candidate.hr-manager.net/ApplicationInit.aspx?cid=5001&ProjectId=151091&DepartmentId=8433&MediaId=2406&fbclid=IwAR37PtadTK2qK19HzeUh6TKQsINhKZpG40LsSBeTWFSIgvimIBdFSLYpZEYcid=5001&ProjectId=151091&DepartmentId=8433&MediaId=2406&fbclid=IwAR37PtadTK2qK19HzeUh6TKQsINhKZpG40LsSBeTWFSIgvimIBdFSLYpZEY

Internships

Eхternal Relations and State Cooperation Unit Internship, International Criminal Court, The Hague

Applications close 23 January 2022. See here for more information: https://career5.successfactors.eu/career?career_ns=job_listing&company=1657261P&navBarLevel=JOB_SEARCH&rcm_site_locale=en_GB&career_job_req_id=21359&selected_lang=en_GB&jobAlertController_jobAlertId=&jobAlertController_jobAlertName=&browserTimeZone=Europe/Berlin&_s.crb=OiU/VYSaWmBBhz94WNXFUC9ms0TxkKgyLIfeZFVE3fk%3d

Office of the Director Internship, Division of Judicial Services, Registry, International Criminal Court, The Hague

Applications close 31 January 2022. See here for more information: https://career5.successfactors.eu/career?career_ns=job_listing&company=1657261P&navBarLevel=JOB_SEARCH&rcm_site_locale=en_GB&career_job_req_id=21138&selected_lang=en_GB&jobAlertController_jobAlertId=&jobAlertController_jobAlertName=&browserTimeZone=Europe/Berlin&_s.crb=lVLiCBxAGjuI/Yr80mzZS5/7Q/lXmeLpSZpeeVAGH/M%3d

Prosecution Division Internship, Office of the Prosecutor, International Criminal Court, The Hague

Applications close 31 March 2022. See here for more information: 

https://career5.successfactors.eu/career?career_ns=job_listing&company=1657261P&navBarLevel=JOB_SEARCH&rcm_site_locale=en_GB&career_job_req_id=21221&selected_lang=en_GB&jobAlertController_jobAlertId=&jobAlertController_jobAlertName=&browserTimeZone=Europe/Berlin&_s.crb=G%2bmV7Q6xXaziN/kmvI7R7gPdNya0YCkt4vKt94ku/gk%3d

Peter Nygh Hague Conference Internship, The Hague

The 2022 Peter Nygh Internship is currently open for applications, and would be undertaken in the latter half of the year. See here for more information: https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/youth-and-community/nygh-internship/

International Bar Association Internships, London

Applications for the July-September 2022 internship period close on 25 February 2022. See here for more information: https://www.ibanet.org/legal-internship-programme-applications

Various UN departments and agencies, various locations 

A variety of UN internship positions are currently open. Please see the following links for legal internship positions with application deadlines in January 2022: 

https://careers.un.org/lbw/jobdetail.aspx?id=170590&Lang=en-US

https://careers.un.org/lbw/jobdetail.aspx?id=170734&Lang=en-US

https://careers.un.org/lbw/jobdetail.aspx?id=149131&Lang=en-US

Opportunities

Scholarship, ILA Lisbon Conference 2022

The ILA offers a scholarship to support young individuals attending ILA Regional or Biennial Conferences. See here for more information: https://www.ila-hq.org/index.php/about-us/scholarships

Geneva Academy International Humanitarian Law and International Human Rights Law short courses, Online

There are a number of courses open for application, please see the following links for internship positions with application deadlines in January 2022 and early in February 2022:

The Implementation of International Humanitarian Law – runs from 8 February to 11 March 2022. Applications close 25 January 2022. See here for more information: https://www.geneva-academy.ch/masters/executive-master/individual-courses/detail/128-the-implementation-of-international-humanitarian-law

The Interplay Between International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights – runs from 11 February to 4 March 2022. Applications close 4 February 2022. See here for more information: https://www.geneva-academy.ch/masters/executive-master/individual-courses/detail/127-the-interplay-between-international-humanitarian-law-and-human-rights

The Implementation of International Humanitarian Law – runs from 8 February to 11 March 2022. Applications close 25 January 2022. See here for more information: https://www.geneva-academy.ch/masters/executive-master/individual-courses/detail/128-the-implementation-of-international-humanitarian-law

Judicial Fellowship Programme, International Court of Justice 

The International Court of Justice (ICJ) invites applications from eligible universities around the world for the 2022-2023 Judicial Fellowship Programme (formerly known as the University Traineeship Programme). Universities must nominate candidates for the program, the Court does not accept applications from individuals. The deadline for submission of applications is 3 February 2022. See here for more information: https://www.icj-cij.org/en/judicial-fellows-program 

Events

International Chamber of Commerce Young Arbitrators Forum is hosting a webinar dedicated to the soft skills arbitration practitioners need in order to build a strong career. This free event is online on 18 January 2022. To register for this event see: https://2go.iccwbo.org/icc-yaf-the-unwritten-rules-of-a-career-in-international-arbitration.html

10th ITA-IEL-ICC Joint Conference on International Energy Arbitration

This online conference runs from 20-21 January 2022, and is presented by The Institute for Transnational Arbitration and The Institute for Energy Law of The Center for American and International Law and The ICC International Court of Arbitration. There are reduced registration fees for students for certain events. For more information and to register see: https://2go.iccwbo.org/10th-ita-iel-icc-joint-conference-on-international-energy-arbitration.html